Social Construction of Victims | Victiminology Theories

Social Construction of Victims | Victiminology Theories â€Å"Some victims are more deserving of the label ‘victim’ than others. Critically analyse this statement in light of your knowledge of theories in this area.† The word ‘victim’ can be associated with a person who has experienced some form of misfortune or suffering, however, when the word ‘victim’ is thought of in a policing perspective it is typically â€Å"used to refer to the complainant of a crime† (Wakefield, 2008:315). This essay aims to critically analyse the statement; ‘some victims are more deserving of the label ‘victim’ than others’, using different theories in relation to this. The essay will firstly; analyse two theories in relation to victimisation, secondly; it explore Nils Christie’s approach to the ‘ideal victim’ and lastly; the media’s role in representing the ‘ideal victim’ will be portrayed through the comparison of news coverage on the Madeline McCann case and the Shannon Matthews case. Historically criminology and criminal justice have been solely focused on the understanding of criminal offending, however, since the 1960’s â€Å"a variety of paradigm shifts, scientific advances, and social and political forces †¦ provided a foundation from which theories of victimisation emerged†, also known as the study of Victimology (Wilcox, 2010:978). This shift occurred when scholars decided to investigate ‘crime’ as more than just the behaviour and conduct of a criminal, instead it was viewed as a ‘system’ which involved a victim, time and place as well as the offender (Wilcox, 2010:978). It was in the 1960’s when a more socio-political movement anticipated for greater attention to be brought to victims of crime and their rights in the criminal justice system. With both scientific and socio-political movements it created an ideal opportunity for the development of different theoretical outlooks on victimisation. Collectivel y, these perspectives focused on many casual influences from lifestyles to broad-based social inequality (Wilcox, 2010:978). A major theory which emphasis’s these different influences is the radical theory of Victomology. The theory of radical Victimology, which emerged in the 1960’s and 1970’s, can be linked to the work of Benjamin Mendelsohn (Friday, 2000:62) and can be thought to be an offspring of Radical Criminology and Sociology. Mendelsohn’s argument for a vicitimology which looks at human rights and allows and investigation into the role of the state in determining who is a ‘legitimate’ victim and how the criminal justice system is concerned in the making of criminals and victims, is what is thought to be the origins for radical Victimology. As a consequence of this argument, â€Å"radical victimology acknowledges, in particular, those victims who have been rendered invisible† (Marsh, 2004:110). These victims, according to Quinny (1972), are best described as â€Å"victims of police force, the victims of war, the victims of the correctional system, the victims of state violence, and the victims of oppression of any sort† (Marsh, 2004:110). Accord ing to Marsh, it can be said that the idea of a ‘conventional’ radical victimology is what has been an aid for representing the problems faced by the poor and powerless which is a result of a limited structural foundation of victimisation (2004:110). Similarly to radical victimology, there are critical theorists who also address the idea of whether people â€Å"are aware of their social reality† and if it is safe to think that â€Å"the state is neutral in its response to crime and victimisation† (Marsh, 2004:111). The similarity of radical victimology and critical victimology is that they both attempt to theorise about the social issues within victimology. One version of this theory of victimology can be demonstrated through the importance of labelling, and as Meirs (1990) suggests that people may â€Å"claim the label, but the key questions for a critical victimology are, who has the power to apply the label and what considerations are significant in that determination† (Davies, 2004:38). In this version, Meirs uses the hypothetical outlook of â€Å"symbolic interactionism† (Davies, 2004:38) to enlighten his practice of the word ‘critical’. In general, critical victimology looks at the problems contained in the relationship between the state and its citizens; â€Å"it does not see the state as neutral rather the states mechanisms contribute to those victims we see and those we don’t see† (Marsh, 2004:112). Therefore it is not neutral, instead self-moti vated and self-interested and according to critical victimology this would raise problems when it comes to gender, race and class and how these are expressed in policy terms. Therefore, it can be said that critical victimology is a theoretical perspective which inspects the wider social context of modern societies which focuses on â€Å"the ways in which capitalism and patriarchy influence the ways in which victims are perceived and responded to† (Marsh, 2004:112). Both these theories explore the different reasons why some people may become a victim to certain crimes. In an ideal world any person who falls victim to a crime should be seen and treated as equal victims, whether they have been hurt psychologically, physically, financially or socially, but there has been the ever standing debate of what makes an ‘ideal’ victim and Nils Christie was the first criminologist to explore this idea. In 1986, criminologist Nils Christie created the concept of the ‘ideal victim’. According to Christie, the ideal victim encompasses at least six main characteristics; the victim is weak, they were involved in a respectable activity at the time of incident, the victim was in a place at the time of the incident where they could not be blamed for being, the victim did not know their perpetrator, the offender is seen as ‘big and bad’ or can be described with very negative connotations and lastly the victim has enough impact to claim the status of a victim (Lindgren, 2011:21-22). Christie uses the situation of an elderly lady being mugged by a male drug abuser while on route to see her sick sibling as the perfect example of who an ideal victim is, but the ideal victim also has an opposite according to Christie. His example of this would entail something along the lines of a young male who is drunk and in a dingy pub and is robbed by those he is associating with, Christie believes in this situation there is the prospect to claim moral accountability: â€Å"he should not have gone to such a bar, he should not have gotten drunk, he should not have associated with those types etc† (Lindgren, 2011:22). Regardless of evidence of any physical, psychological or economical harms, if an individual is not classified as a ‘victim’ then that individual risks little or no protection evidently because they are not comprised of the ‘standard’ vision of a victim of crime. Therefore raising the argument for; is there people more deserving of the label ‘victim’ than others, and what is the decision of being more deserving influenced by? The phenomenon of the ‘ideal victim’ arises questions like why some people – normally those from a socially deprived background or from ethnic minorities – appear to be less deserving of the label victim even although they clearly satisfy each category of Christie’s theory. It can be argued that the media are at large to blame for depriving so many individuals of the label ‘victim’ because not all victims of crime receive equal attention in the news or media. It has been said that â€Å"there exists a ‘hierarchy of victimization’, both reflected and reinforced in media and official discourses† (Greer, 2007:22). On one side there are individuals who have obtained the status of being an ‘ideal victim’ and will attract huge levels of media attention, creating a shared global-scale grieving, and generating possible changes in criminal justice policies and practices (Greer, 2004; Valier, 2004, Cited by: Greer, 2007:22). On the other side of the hierarchy there are the individuals who fail to obtain a victim status or are seen as an ‘undeserving victim’ which would result in that individual receiving â€Å"little, if any, media attention, and pass virtually unnoticed in the wider social world† (Greer, 2007:22). Comparisons of the news and media coverage from the disappearances of Madeline McCann and Shannon Matthews can help to illustrate the media’s role in representing the ‘ideal victim’. In May 2007 three year old Madeline McCann was reported missing while on a family holiday in Portugal. Her parents left her and her two siblings in their apartment while they went for dinner and when they returned Madeline was missing from her bed, and unfortunately it is still unknown what happened to her today. Madeline’s disappearance sparked international attention from the media and was described by the Daily Telegraph as â€Å"the most heavily reported missing-person case in modern history† (Telegraph.co.uk). Then nine months after Madeline’s disappearance in February 2008 nine year old Shannon Matthews was reported missing by her mother. Shannon was found safe on the 14th of March and her mother was later charged â€Å"with child neglect and perverting the court of justice over her daughter’s disappearance† (BBC.co.uk) as she had set the whole thing up in order to receive money. Even although the Matthews case was a set-up there was still 24 days of Shannon being ‘missing’ and the news coverage and interest on her story was majorly lesser than that of Madeline McCann’s. According to an Independent news article after nine days there were 465 UK press stories released on Madeline McCann in comparison with only 242 on Shannon Matthews (Independent.co.uk). Also their Wikipedia profiles were both very different, Madeline McCann’s profile reached 2,182 words after only nine days yet Shannon Matthews profile only managed to reach 151 words after the same amount of time (Independent.co.uk). According to the same Independent news article the rewards offered for the two girls were significantly different; the reward for Madeline McCann reached a massive  £2.6 million whereas the reward for Shannon Matthews was only  £25,000 (Independent.co.uk). Therefore the differences in the number of press stories, Wikipedia profiles and reward figures, sparks the question of how do we understand the mediaâ€℠¢s discrimination between the two stories? The answer to this question lies within the origins of legitimate and ‘deserving victims’. Madeline McCann was a classic version of an ‘ideal victim’. She was a young, pretty, and photogenic girl from a stable, middle-class family with two Doctors as parents who lived in a detached house in Leicestershire (Independent.co.uk). On the other hand, Shannon Matthews came from a working class family living in a council house in Dewsbury Moor. Her father hadn’t seen her for years while she lived with her mother, step-father and six other siblings – of which were from her mother’s relationships with five different partners (Independent.co.uk). While the public’s hearts where captured by the story of Madeline McCann, Shannon Matthews did not attract the same type of attention. Public donations for Shannon Matthews only managed to reach thousands at most (Independent.co.uk) yet public donations for Madeline McCann excelled to  £1.1 millio n and some of these donations were made by A-list celebrities such as; David Beckham, Christiano Ronaldo, John Terry, J K Rowling and more (Independent.co.uk). Madeline McCann personified the concept of an ‘ideal victim’ whereas it was Shannon’s background which denied her the ‘deserving’ victim label. The acknowledgement of â€Å"ideal or legitimate victim status and related levels of media interest are clearly influenced by demographic characteristics (Greer, 2007:23). The media’s role in representing the cases of these two missing girls show that ‘class’ can be a major factor in portraying who becomes deserving of the label ‘victim’. Not only the factor of ‘class’ but other demographic characteristics such as age, sexuality, race and gender can sometimes determine the media’s interest in a somewhat direct style. Still, the idea remains that the majority of criminal victimisation both emphasises and imitates social inequalities and divisions, and whilst doing this â€Å"feeds into the wider structures of power, dominance and subjugation from which they derive† (Greer, 2007:42). It can be said that in the media representation of ‘victims’ of a missing persons case, or crimes similar to this, that these inequalities remain to have the greatest impact. This impact is shown through the portrayal of such victims who appear to show prospects of newsworthiness. However, the impact ca n equally be detected from the consideration of those who do not show horizons of newsworthiness. To conclude, this essay has explored the question of whether certain victims are more ‘deserving’ of the label than others, and used different theories and concepts to analyse this. Firstly the essay looked at two theories of victimology; radical and critical, and showed how different types of people may be more victimised than others – largely through social structures of the power of the state. From these theories the question arose of what an ‘ideal’ victim may constitute and this concept was explored through criminologist Nils Christie, which in his perspective the ideal victim would be a vulnerable person (youth or elderly) carrying out an innocent task (going to visit a family member or friend) and being robbed or attacked by a person out of their control (strong and perhaps a drug/alcohol abuser). Then from this concept came the issue of; is there are certain people more deserving of the label victim, and what is this decision based upon? This essay used the idea that the media plays a large role in portraying who the ideal victim is and who is not. This portrayal was used through the news coverage and stories of the disappearance of two young girls, Madeline McCann in 2007 and Shannon Matthews eight months later in 2008. Madeline McCann was a young pretty girl from a middle class background, whereas Shannon Matthews was from a working class background living in a council house with brothers and sisters who had different fathers. The news coverage of Madeline McCann was much greater than Shannon Matthews, to the point where everyone around the world knew who Madeline McCann was on a first name basis, whereas Shannon Matthews struggled to even be known by the whole of the U.K. Therefore the media portrayed Madeline McCann to be a more deserving victim than Shannon Matthews based upon their looks, backgrounds and ‘newsworthiness’ and evidence of this can be shown through the differences in; public donations, re wards, Wikipedia profiles and how many news articles where printed about each girl after nine days of each of their disappearances. Bibliography BBC. 2010.Shannon Matthews Timeline. [ONLINE] Available at:http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk/7733586.stm. [Accessed 09 March 15]. Pamela Davies 2004.  Victimisation: Theory, Research and Policy. Edition. Palgrave Macmillan Paul C. Friday, 2000.  Victimology at the Transition From the 20th to the 21st Century. Montreal, Canada: World Society of Victimology. Chris Greer, 2007. News Media, Victims and Crime. Chapter 2, Pages 20-49 Michael J Hindelang, 2009. Toward a theory of personal criminal victimology.Victims and Victimisation, Pages 26-40. Independent. 2008. Missing: The contrasting searches for Shannon and Madeleine. [ONLINE] Available at:http://www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/crime/missing-the-contrasting-searches-for-shannon-and-madeleine-790207.html. [Accessed 06 March 15] Magnus Lindgren, Vesna NikoliĆ¡-RistanoviĆ¡, 2011.  Crime Victims International and Serbian Perspective. 1st ed. Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe, Mission to Serbia, Law Enforcement Department Ian Marsh, 2004.  Criminal Justice: An Introduction to Philosophies, Theories and Practice. 1 Edition. Routledge. The Telegraph. 2008.  Master of media circus for Madeleine McCann. [ONLINE] Available at:http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/1902515/Master-of-media-circus-for-Madeleine-McCann.html. [Accessed 01 March 15]. Alison Wakefield, Jenny Fleming, 2008.  The SAGE Dictionary of Policing. Edition. SAGE Publications Ltd Pamela Wilcox, 2010. Victimisation, theories of. Encyclopaedia of victimology and crime prevention. Pages 978-986. Sage Publications. Brian Williams, 2009.  Victims and Victimisation: A Reader (Readings in Criminology and Criminal Justice). 1 Edition. Open University Press. 2015.. [ONLINE] Available at:http://www.ucs.mun.ca/~skenney/courses/4099/VCLASS1.2.pdf. [Accessed 13 March 2015] Kidneys: Function and Structure Kidneys: Function and Structure The kidneys are essential for regulating the volume and composition of bodily fluids. This page outlines key regulatory systems involving the kidneys for controlling volume, sodium and potassium concentrations, and the pH of bodily fluids. A most critical concept for you to understand is how water and sodium regulation are integrated to defend the body against all possible disturbances in the volume and osmolarity of bodily fluids. Simple examples of such disturbances include dehydration, blood loss, salt ingestion, and plain water ingestion. How water balance is regulated by ADH Water balance is achieved in the body by ensuring that the amount of water consumed in food and drink (and generated by metabolism) equals the amount of water excreted. The consumption side is regulated by behavioural mechanisms, including thirst and salt cravings. While almost a litre of water per day is lost through the skin, lungs, and feces, the kidneys are the major site of regulated excretion of water. One way the kidneys can directly control the volume of bodily fluids is by the amount of water excreted in the urine. Either the kidneys can conserve water by producing urine that is concentrated relative to plasma, or they can rid the body of excess water by producing urine that is dilute relative to plasma. Direct control of water excretion in the kidneys is exercised by vasopressin, or anti-diuretic hormone (ADH), a peptide hormone secreted by the hypothalamus. ADH causes the insertion of water channels into the membranes of cells lining the collecting ducts, allowing water reabsorption to occur. Without ADH, little water is reabsorbed in the collecting ducts and dilute urine is excreted. How the kidney uses a counter current mechanism Because the human body does not maintain a constant water volume, the kidneys have to compensate for the lack of or excess of water consumed. The kidneys use a transport system called the counter-current mechanism to accomplish this (Hoppensteadt et al, 186). The name is based on the fact that concentration first increases in the direction of flow, then decreases as flow continues through the ascending parallel loop. The mechanism relies on the adjacent, parallel loops of Henle and vasa recta. In the ascending loop, Na+ or any solute is actively pumped out of the tubule. Because water is impermeable in the ascending loop, the volume at the bottom of the loop is the same as that entering the distal tubule. At the bottom of the loop, the tubular and interstitial concentrations are equal. In the descending loop, the concentrations inside and outside the tubule are increasing with the current, with the maximum concentration being reached at the bottom of the loop. The increased concentration is the result of the passive diffusion of Na+ into the tubule and water out of the tubule. When the filtrate reaches the distal tubule, a net loss of Na+ and water has occurred through the loops of Henle. How the PH is controlled by the kidney The secretion of further substances not required by the body may take place in the distal convoluted tubule, e.g. hydrogen and hydro carbonate ions. This is very important in the control of plasma Ph, which must be maintained at 7.4. If the pH plasma falls, hydrogen ions are excreted by the kidney; if the plasma pH raises hydrogen carbonate ions secreted. Active Transport Active transport is the energy-demanding transfer of a substance across a cell membrane against its concentration gradient, i.e., from lower concentration to higher concentration. Special proteins within the cell membrane act as specific protein carriers. The energy for active transport comes from ATP generated by respiration (in mitochondria). Major examples of Active Transport such as: Re-absorption of glucose, Amino acids Salts by the proximal convoluted tubule of the nephron in the kidney. A mechanism of active transport which move potassium ions into and sodium ions out of a cell along with protein (or enzyme) channel. It is found in all human cells, but is especially important in nerve and muscle cells. The sodium-potassium pump uses active transport, with energy supplied by ATP (adenosine triphosphate) molecules, to move 3 sodium ions to the outside of the cell for each 2 potassium ions that it moves in. One third of the bodys energy expenditure is used in this process. Buffer system The kidneys and the lungs work together to help maintain a blood pH of 7.4 by affecting the components of the buffers in the blood. Therefore, to understand how these organs help control the pH of the blood, we must first discuss how buffers work in solution. Acid-base buffers confer resistance to a change in the pH of a solution when hydrogen ions (protons) or hydroxide ions are added or removed. An acid-base buffer typically consists of a weak acid, and its base (salt). Buffers work because the concentrations of the weak acid and its salt are large compared to the amount of protons or hydroxide ions added or removed. When protons are added to the solution from an external source, some of the base component of the buffer is converted to the weak-acid component (therefore, using up most of the protons added); when hydroxide ions are added to the solution (or, equivalently, protons are removed from the solution; protons are dissociated from some of the weak-acid molecules of the buffer, converting them to the base of the buffer (and therefore replenishing most of the protons removed). However, the change in acid and base concentrations is small relative to the amounts of these species present in solution. Hence, the ratio of acid to base changes only slightly. Thus, the effect on the pH of the solution is small, within certain limitations on the amount of H+ or OH- added or removed. Other buffers perform a more minor role than the carbonic-acid-bicarbonate buffer in regulating the pH of the blood. The phosphate buffer consists of phosphoric acid (H3PO4) in equilibrium with dihydrogen phosphate ion (H2PO4-) and H+. The pK for the phosphate buffer is 6.8, which allows this buffer to function within its optimal buffering range at physiological pH. The phosphate buffer only plays a minor role in the blood, however, because H3PO4 and H2PO4- are found in very low concentration in the blood. Haemoglobin also acts as a pH buffer in the blood. Protein can reversibly bind either H+ (to the protein) or O2, but that when one of these substances is bound, the other is released (as explained by the Bohr effect). During exercise, haemoglobin helps to control the pH of the blood by binding some of the excess protons that are generated in the muscles. At the same time, molecular oxygen is released for use by the muscles. The symptoms of kidney failure: There are two types of kidney failure; one of them is acute renal failure and the other type is: Chronic renal failure. Acute renal failure. Blood loss, causing a drop in blood pressure. Vomiting and diarrhea, causing dehydration. Crush injuries. If large amounts of muscle are damaged there is a release of toxic protein substances that are harmful to the kidneys. Sudden blockage of urine drainage. Chronic renal failure The damage to the kidneys is usually silent and not noticed at an early stage. It may be discovered incidentally from blood or urine tests done for other reasons. High blood pressure very commonly occurs with it. Symptoms are uncommon unless kidney failure is far advanced, when any of the following may be present: The symptoms of Chronic renal failure Tiredness Itching Loss of appetite Nausea and vomiting Breathlessness Fluid retention, shown as ankle swelling Weakness. The importance to the body to maintain acid base levels All the cells that make up the human body are slightly alkaline and the alkalinity must be maintained in order to function and remain healthy. However, their cellular activity creates acid and this acid is what gives the cell energy and function. As each alkaline cell performs its task of respiration, it secrets metabolic wastes and these end products of cellular metabolism are acid in nature. Although these wastes are used for energy and function, they must not be allowed to build up. An example of this would be the lactic acid which is created through exercise. The body will go to great lengths to neutralise and detoxify these acids before they act as poisons in and around the cell, ultimately changing the environment of the cell. The human body is very intelligent; as the human body become more acidic the body starts to set up defence mechanisms to keep the damaging acid from entering our organs. Its known as that the acid gets stored in the fat cells. However, if the acid does come to contact with an organ the acid has a chance to eat holes in the tissue which may cause the cell to mutate (change in a chromosome or a gene). The oxygen level drops in this acidic environment and calcium begins to be depleted. So as a defense mechanism, our body may actually make fat to protect us from our overly-acidic self. Those fat cells and cellulite deposits may actually be packing up the acid and trying to keep it a safe distance from our organs to safe them from damage. The effect of exercise on body fluid requirements Optimal pH of the blood is 7.2, the body will do everything it can to maintain that pH. This is necessary to run the entire bodys biochemical pathways for detoxification, building, and general maintenance. The body has several control mechanisms to keep it at this pH and they include getting rid of excess acid or base by-products through the lungs, saliva and urine. When the body is sick in any way this pH is disrupted. Most times your body is trying to keep up with the extra acid produced. Acids are produced from lack of oxygen, eating an imbalance of protein and carbohydrates and other acid producing foods, and by cell breakdown and production of metabolic waste. During exercise, the muscles use up oxygen as they convert chemical energy in glucose to mechanical energy. This O2 comes from hemoglobin in the blood. CO2 and H+ are produced during the breakdown of glucose, and are removed from the muscle via the blood. The production and removal of CO2 and H+, together with the use and transport of O2, cause chemical changes in the blood. These chemical changes, unless offset by other physiological functions, cause the pH of the blood to drop. If the pH of the body gets too low (below7.4) this result in a condition known as acidosis. This can be very serious, because many of the chemical reactions that occur in the body, especially those involving proteins, are pH-dependent. Ideally, the pH of the blood should be maintained at 7.4. If the pH drops below 6.8 or rises above 7.8, death may occur. Fortunately, we have buffers in the blood to protect against large changes in pH. Production of CO2 is a result of normal body metabolism. Exercise will increase the production of CO2 through increased respiration in the lungs. When oxygen (O2) is inhaled and CO2 is exhaled, the blood transports these gases to the lungs and body tissues. The bodys metabolism produces acids that are buffered and then excreted by the lungs and kidneys to maintain body fluids at a neutral pH. Disruptions in CO2 levels and HCO3 -create acid-base imbalances. When acid-base imbalances occur, the disturbances can be broadly divided into either acidosis (excess acid) or alkalosis (excess base/alkali). Urine becomes increasingly acidic as the amount of excess acid retained by the body increases. Alkaline urine, usually containing bicarbonate-carbonic acid buffer, is normally excreted when there is an excess of base or alkali in the body. Secretion of acid or alkaline urine by the kidneys is one of the most important mechanisms the body uses to maintain a constant body pH. As we exercise the urine pH becomes more acidic because the condition which known as acidosis have occurred and this results from a build-up of carbon dioxide in the blood, as well as starvation and dehydration. As we exercise the temperature increases, and the amount of O2 released from the haemoglobin. Heat is a bi product of the metabolic reactions of all cells and the heat released by contracting muscle fibers tends to raise body temperature. Metabolically active cells require more O2 and liberate more acids and heat. If we have an increase in temperature, it causes the rate of respiration to increase too. Because O2 tends to be released from the haemoglobin compared to when the weather is cold. This explains why during fever, a person will breathe faster than normal person. In contrast, during hypothermia (lowered body temperature) cellular metabolism slows and the need for O2 is reduced, and more O2 remains bound to haemoglobin. Body Adjustment to improve fitness levels Exercises help our body to adjust and improve its capacity for physical activities. In order to increase our overall fitness level we have to concentrate on three different areas: Cardiovascular training Strength training Flexibility training Cardiovascular training Cardiovascular training is aerobic exercise that involves the large muscles like legs and helps make the heart and lungs stronger. Cardiovascular exercise has lots of health benefits like lowering the blood pressure, and also it can burn lots of calories. This type of exercise leads to improvements in the hearts ability to pump blood through the body to the working muscles and improves overall cardiovascular health. It is also linked to a number of health improvements including a decreased risk of many diseases, decreases in total cholesterol, blood pressure and levels of body fat. Strength training In order to improve our strength, a change is needed to be made, otherwise if we simply lift the same weights, the same way, then we will stay the same our training is maintenance based. If we want to improve our strength training, then we will need to apply a number of different variations into our workout routines to avoid letting the body become adapted to the current strength training workouts. A muscle will only strengthen when forced to operate beyond its customary intensity (overload). Overload can be progressed by increasing the: (1) Resistance e.g. adding more weight. (2) Number of repetitions with a particular weight. (3) Number of sets of the exercise. (4) Intensity, i.e. reducing the recovery periods Flexibility training Flexibility is a joints ability to move through a full range of motion. Flexibility training, also called flexibility stretching that helps balance muscle groups that might be overused during exercise or physical activity. There are many benefits to flexibility training. Some of the benefits are: Improved Physical Performance. Decreased Risk of Injury. Increased Blood and Nutrients to Tissues. Stretching increases tissue temperature, which increases circulation and nutrient transport. Increased circulation and nutrient transport allows greater elasticity of surrounding tissues and increases performance. Maintaining Fluid Balances Fluid balance defines the state where a bodys required amount of water is present and proportioned normally among the various compartments; this state is inseparable from electrolyte balance. Under normal conditions water loss equals water gain and a bodys water volume remains constant. Avenues for water loss include the kidneys, skin, lungs, feces, and menstruation. Water is sourced mostly from dietary intake; this is called preformed water. Water is not produced by the body to maintain homeostasis; metabolic water production is simply a by-product of cellular respiration. The body regulates water intake via the thirst reflex which stimulates us to drink. When water loss is greater than water gain the body reaches a state of dehydration, and dehydration stimulates the thirst reflex in three ways: The level of saliva drops resulting in a dry mucosa in the mouth and pharynx; There is an increase in blood osmotic pressure which stimulates osmoreceptors in the hypothalamus; There is a drop in blood volume, which leads to the renin/angiotensin pathway stimulating the thirst centre in the hypothalamus. When the blood looses excessive fluid dehydration occurs and the blood becomes more viscous (reduce ability to flow). This results in insufficient blood supply to the working muscles. After exercise, a drop in body fluid results in an increase in blood tonicity and a decrease in blood volume which in turn causes the release of renin in the kidneys and stimulation of osmoreceptors in the hypothalamus.Therefore after exercise, the exerciser must focus on the following areas: Effect of drinks Cardiovascular and thermoregulatory responses to fluid ingestion Carbohydrates feeding and exercise performance Sports drinks must be formulated to taste best when people are hot and sweaty so that they can drink as much as they possibly can. The sports drinks are absorbed faster than plain water during exercise and rest. During exercise fluid consumption is vital for two primary purposes safe guarding health and optimizing performance Therefore, we need to consume more carbohydrate which helps maintaining blood glucose and increases carbohydrate oxidation, assure skeletal muscle and CNS sufficient supply of energy. Sources Used http://www.enotes.com/nursing-encyclopedia/acid-base-balance http://www.shodor.org/Master/biomed/physio/dialysis/kidfunc.htm http://www.8candlesonline.com/purify/what_is/alkalinity.html http://mcb.berkeley.edu/courses/mcb135e/kidneyfluid.html http://www.ann.com.au/MedSci/fluid.htm Books Essential AS Biology by( Glenn and Susan Toole) AS Biology by (Pete Kennedy and Frank Sochacki)